第二十八章计算机网络-Computer Networks

翻译内容

Hi, I’m Carrie Anne, and welcome to Crash Course Computer Science!
(｡･∀･)ﾉﾞ嗨，我是 Carrie Anne，欢迎收看计算机科学速成课！

The internet is amazings
互联网太棒啦

In just a few keystrokes, we can stream videos on Youtube -- Hello!
键盘敲几下就能在 Youtube 直播--哈喽！

• read articles on Wikipedia,
  在维基百科上阅读文章

order supplies on amazon, video chat with friends, and tweet about the weather.
在亚马逊买东西 和朋友视频 发一条天气推特

Without a doubt, the ability for computers, and their users, to send and receive information
毫无疑问，\N 用户在全球网络中发送和接收信息的能力

over a global telecommunications network forever changed the world.
永远改变了这个世界

150 years ago, sending a letter from London to California would have taken two to three
150年前 发一封信件从伦敦到加州 要花2~3周

weeks, and that’s if you paid for express mail.
而且还是特快邮件

Today, that email takes a fraction of a second.
如今 电子邮件只要几分之一秒.

This million fold improvement in latency, that’s the time it takes for a message to
"时延"改善了上百万倍 \N (时延指传播一条信息所需的时间)

transfer, juiced up the global economy helping the modern world to
振兴了全球经济 \N 帮助现代世界在遍布全球的光纤中快速发展

move at the speed of light on fiber optic cables spanning the globe.
振兴了全球经济 \N 帮助现代世界在遍布全球的光纤中快速发展

You might think that computers and networks always went hand in hand, but actually most
你可能觉得计算机和网络密切相关，但事实上，

computers pre-1970 were humming away all alone.
1970年以前 大多数计算机是独立运行的

However, as big computers began popping up everywhere,
然而 因为大型计算机开始随处可见

and low cost machines started to show up on people’s desks,
廉价机器开始出现在书桌上

it became increasingly useful to share data and resources,
分享数据和资源渐渐变得有用起来

and the first networks of computers appeared.
首个计算机网络出现了

Today, we’re going to start a three-episode arc on how computer networks came into being
今天起，我们花3集视频讲网络是如何发展成现在的样子

and the fundamental principles and techniques that power them.
以及支撑它们的基础原理和技术

The first computer networks appeared in the 1950s and 60s.
第一个计算机网络出现在1950~1960年代

They were generally used within an organization – like a company or research lab
通常在公司或研究室内部使用，为了方便信息交换

to facilitate the exchange of information between different people and computers.
通常在公司或研究室内部使用，为了方便信息交换

This was faster and more reliable than the previous method of having someone walk a pile
比把纸卡或磁带送到另一栋楼里更快速可靠

of punch cards, or a reel of magnetic tape, to a computer on the other side of a building
比把纸卡或磁带送到另一栋楼里更快速可靠

‒ which was later dubbed a sneakernet.
这叫"球鞋网络"

A second benefit of networks was the ability to share physical resources.
第二个好处是能共享物理资源

For example, instead of each computer having its own printer,
举个例子，与其每台电脑配一台打印机

everyone could share one attached to the network.
大家可以共享一台联网的打印机

It was also common on early networks to have large, shared, storage drives,
早期网络也会共享存储空间

ones too expensive to have attached to every machine.
因为每台电脑都配存储器太贵了

These relatively small networks of close-by computers
计算机近距离构成的小型网络 \N 叫局域网， 简称LAN

are called Local Area Networks, or LANs.
计算机近距离构成的小型网络 \N 叫局域网， 简称LAN

A LAN could be as small as two machines in the same room,
局域网能小到是同一个房间里的两台机器

or as large as a university campus with thousands of computers.
或大到校园里的上千台机器

Although many LAN technologies were developed and deployed,
尽管开发和部署了很多不同 LAN 技术

the most famous and successful was Ethernet, developed in the
其中最著名和成功的是"以太网" , 开发于1970年代 \N 在施乐的"帕洛阿尔托研究中心"诞生, 今日仍被广泛使用

early 1970s at Xerox PARC, and still widely used today.
其中最著名和成功的是"以太网" , 开发于1970年代 \N 在施乐的"帕洛阿尔托研究中心"诞生, 今日仍被广泛使用

In its simplest form, a series of computers are connected to a single, common ethernet cable.
以太网的最简单形式是：一条以太网电线连接数台计算机

When a computer wants to transmit data to another computer,
当一台计算机要传数据给另一台计算机时

it writes the data, as an electrical signal, onto the cable.
它以电信号形式，将数据传入电缆

Of course, because the cable is shared, every computer plugged into the network sees the
当然 因为电缆是共享的 \N 连在同一个网络里的其他计算机也看得到数据

transmission, but doesn’t know if data is intended for them or another computer.
但不知道数据是给它们的，还是给其他计算机的

To solve this problem, Ethernet requires that each computer has a unique
为了解决这个问题 以太网需要每台计算机有唯一的 \N 媒体访问控制地址 简称 MAC地址

Media Access Control address, or MAC address.
为了解决这个问题 以太网需要每台计算机有唯一的 \N 媒体访问控制地址 简称 MAC地址

This unique address is put into a header that prefixes any data sent over the network.
这个唯一的地址放在头部，作为数据的前缀发送到网络中

So, computers simply listen to the ethernet cable,
所以，计算机只需要监听以太网电缆 \N 只有看到自己的 MAC 地址，才处理数据

and only process data when they see their address in the header.
所以，计算机只需要监听以太网电缆 \N 只有看到自己的 MAC 地址，才处理数据

This works really well; every computer made today comes with its own unique MAC address
这运作得很好 现在制造的每台计算机都自带唯一的MAC地址

for both Ethernet and WiFi.
用于以太网和无线网络

The general term for this approach is Carrier Sense Multiple Access, or CSMA for short.
多台电脑共享一个传输媒介，\N 这种方法叫 "载波侦听多路访问" 简称"CSMA"

The "carrier", in this case, is any shared transmission medium that carries data
载体(carrier)指运输数据的共享媒介

copper wire in the case of ethernet, and the air carrying radio waves for WiFi.
以太网的"载体"是铜线 \N WiFi 的"载体"是传播无线电波的空气

Many computers can simultaneously sense the carrier,
很多计算机同时侦听载体

hence the "Sense" and "Multiple Access",
所以叫"侦听"和"多路访问"

and the rate at which a carrier can transmit data is called its Bandwidth.
而载体传输数据的速度 叫"带宽"

Unfortunately, using a shared carrier has one big drawback.
不幸的是 使用共享载体有个很大的弊端

When network traffic is light, computers can simply wait for silence on the carrier,
当网络流量较小时 计算机可以等待载体清空

and then transmit their data.
然后传送数据

But, as network traffic increases, the probability that
但随着网络流量上升 两台计算机想同时写入数据的概率也会上升

two computers will attempt to write data at the same time also increases.
但随着网络流量上升 两台计算机想同时写入数据的概率也会上升

This is called a collision, and the data gets all garbled up,
这叫冲突 数据全都乱套了

like two people trying to talk on the phone at the same time.
就像两个人同时在电话里讲话

Fortunately, computers can detect these collisions by listening to the signal on the wire.
幸运的是 计算机能够通过监听电线中的信号检测这些冲突

The most obvious solution is for computers to stop transmitting,
最明显的解决办法是停止传输

wait for silence, then try again.
等待网络空闲, 然后再试一遍

Problem is, the other computer is going to try that too,
问题是 其他计算机也打算这样做

and other computers on the network that have been waiting for the
其他等着的计算机可能在任何停顿间隙闯入

carrier to go silent will try to jump in during any pause.
其他等着的计算机可能在任何停顿间隙闯入

This just leads to more and more collisions.
导致越来越多冲突

Soon, everyone is talking over one another and has a backlog of things they need to say,
很快，每个人都一个接一个地讲话 而且有一堆事要说

like breaking up with a boyfriend over a family holiday dinner.
就像在家庭聚餐中和男朋友分手一样

Terrible idea!
馊主意！

Ethernet had a surprisingly simple and effective fix.
以太网有个超简单有效的解决方法

When transmitting computers detect a collision,
当计算机检测到冲突 就会在重传之前等待一小段时间

they wait for a brief period before attempting to re-transmit.
当计算机检测到冲突 就会在重传之前等待一小段时间

As an example, let’s say 1 second.
因为要举例，假设是 1 秒好了

Of course, this doesn’t work if all the computers use the same wait duration
当然 如果所有计算机用同样的等待时间 是不行的

-- they’ll just collide again one second later.
它们会在一秒后再次冲突

So, a random period is added: one computer might wait 1.3 seconds,
所以加入一个随机时间 一台计算机可能等1.3秒

while another waits 1.5 seconds.
另一台计算机等待1.5秒

With any luck, the computer that waited 1.3 seconds will wake up,
要是运气好 等1.3秒的计算机会醒来

find the carrier to be silent, and start transmitting.
发现载体是空闲的 然后开始传输

When the 1.5 second computer wakes up a moment later, it’ll see the carrier is in use,
当1.5秒的计算机醒来后 会发现载体被占用 \N 会等待其他计算机完成

and will wait for the other computer to finish.
当1.5秒的计算机醒来后 会发现载体被占用 \N 会等待其他计算机完成

This definitely helps, but doesn’t totally solve the problem, so an extra trick is used.
这有用 但不能完全解决问题 所以要用另一个小技巧

As I just explained, if a computer detects a collision while transmitting,
正如我刚才说的 \N如果一台计算机在传输数据期间检测到冲突

it will wait 1 second, plus some random extra time.
会等一秒+随机时间

However, if it collides again, which suggests network congestion,
然而 如果再次发生冲突 表明有网络拥塞

instead of waiting another 1 second, this time it will wait 2 seconds.
这次不等1秒，而是等2秒

If it collides again, it’ll wait 4 seconds, and then 8, and then 16,
如果再次发生冲突 等4秒 然后8秒 16秒等等

and so on, until it’s successful.
直到成功传输

With computers backing off, the rate of collisions goes down,
因为计算机的退避 冲突次数降低了 \N 数据再次开始流动起来 网络变得顺畅

and data starts moving again, freeing up the network.
因为计算机的退避 冲突次数降低了 \N 数据再次开始流动起来 网络变得顺畅

Family dinner saved!
家庭晚餐有救啦！

This "backing off" behavior using an exponentially growing wait time is called
这种指数级增长等待时间的方法叫：

Exponential Backoff.
指数退避

Both Ethernet and WiFi use it, and so do many transmission protocols.
以太网和WiFi都用这种方法 很多其他传输协议也用

But even with clever tricks like Exponential Backoff,
但即便有了"指数退避"这种技巧

you could never have an entire university’s
想用一根网线链接整个大学的计算机还是不可能的

worth of computers on one shared ethernet cable.
想用一根网线链接整个大学的计算机还是不可能的

To reduce collisions and improve efficiency,
为了减少冲突+提升效率

we need to shrink the number of devices on any given shared carrier
我们需要减少同一载体中设备的数量 \N 载体和其中的设备总称 "冲突域"

-- what’s called the Collision Domain.
我们需要减少同一载体中设备的数量 \N 载体和其中的设备总称 "冲突域"

Let go back to our earlier Ethernet example, where we had six computers on one shared cable,
让我们回到之前以太网的例子 一根电缆连6台计算机

a.k.a. one collision domain.
也叫一个冲突域

To reduce the likelihood of collisions, we can break this network
为了减少冲突 我们可以用交换机把它拆成两个冲突域

into two collision domains by using a Network Switch.
为了减少冲突 我们可以用交换机把它拆成两个冲突域

It sits between our two smaller networks, and only passes data between them if necessary.
交换机位于两个更小的网络之间 \N 必要时才在两个网络间传数据

It does this by keeping a list of what MAC addresses are on what side of the network.
交换机会记录一个列表 \N 写着哪个 MAC 地址在哪边网络

So if A wants to transmit to C, the switch doesn’t forward the data to the other network
如果A想传数据给C \N 交换机不会把数据转发给另一边的网络

– there’s no need.
没必要

This means if E wants to transmit to F at the same time, the network is wide open, and
如果E想同一时间传数据给F，网络仍然是空的

two transmissions can happen at once.
两个传输可以同时发生

But, if F wants to send data to A, then the switch passes it through,
但如果F想发数据给A 数据会通过交换机

and the two networks are both briefly occupied.
两个网络都会被短暂占用

This is essentially how big computer networks are constructed,
大的计算机网络也是这样构建的

including the biggest one of all – The Internet –
包括最大的网络 - 互联网

which literally inter-connects a bunch of smaller networks,
也是多个连在一起的稍小一点网络

allowing inter-network communication.
使不同网络间可以传递信息

What’s interesting about these big networks,
这些大型网络有趣之处是

is that there’s often multiple paths to
从一个地点到另一个地点通常有多条路线

get data from one location to another.
从一个地点到另一个地点通常有多条路线

And this brings us to another fundamental networking topic, routing.
这就带出了另一个话题 路由

The simplest way to connect two distant computers, or networks,
连接两台相隔遥远的计算机或网路，最简单的办法 \N 是分配一条专用的通信线路

is by allocating a communication line for their exclusive use.
连接两台相隔遥远的计算机或网路，最简单的办法 \N 是分配一条专用的通信线路

This is how early telephone systems worked.
早期电话系统就是这样运作的

For example, there might be 5 telephone lines running between Indianapolis and Missoula.
假设"印第安纳波利斯"和"米苏拉"之间，有五条电话线

If John picked up the phone wanting to call Hank, in the 1910s,
如果在1910年代，John 想打电话给 Hank

John would tell a human operator where he wanted to call,
John要告诉操作员他想打到什么地方

and they’d physically connect John’s phone line into
然后工作人员手动将 John 的电话连到 \N 通往米苏拉的未使用线路

an unused line running to Missoula.
然后工作人员手动将 John 的电话连到 \N 通往米苏拉的未使用线路

For the length of the call, that line was occupied, and if all 5 lines were already
通话期间 这条线就被占用了 如果五条线都被占用了 \N John 要等待某条线空出来

in use, John would have to wait for one to become free.
通话期间 这条线就被占用了 如果五条线都被占用了 \N John 要等待某条线空出来

This approach is called Circuit Switching,
这叫 "电路交换"\N因为是把电路连接到正确目的地

because you’re literally switching whole
这叫 "电路交换"\N因为是把电路连接到正确目的地

circuits to route traffic to the correct destination.
这叫 "电路交换"\N因为是把电路连接到正确目的地

It works fine, but it’s relatively inflexible and expensive,
能用倒是能用 \N 但不灵活而且价格昂贵 因为总有闲置的线路

because there’s often unused capacity.
能用倒是能用 \N 但不灵活而且价格昂贵 因为总有闲置的线路

On the upside, once you have a line to yourself – or if you have the money to buy one for
好处是 如果有一条专属于自己的线路 \N 你可以最大限度地随意使用，无需共享

your private use – you can use it to its full capacity, without having to share.
好处是 如果有一条专属于自己的线路 \N 你可以最大限度地随意使用，无需共享

For this reason, the military, banks and other high importance operations
因此军队, 银行和其他一些机构

still buy dedicated circuits to connect their data centers.
依然会购买专用线路来连接数据中心

Another approach for getting data from one place to another is Message Switching,
传输数据的另一个方法是 "报文交换"

which is sort of like how the postal system works.
"报文交换" 就像邮政系统一样

Instead of dedicated route from A to B, messages are passed through several stops.
不像之前A和B有一条专有线路 \N 消息会经过好几个站点

So if John writes a letter to Hank,
如果 John 写一封信给 Hank

it might go from Indianapolis to Chicago, and then
信件可能从"印第安纳波利斯"到"芝加哥"

hop to Minneapolis, then Billings, and then finally make it to Missoula.
然后"明尼阿波利斯" 然后"比林斯" 最后到"米苏拉"

Each stop knows where to send it next
每个站点都知道下一站发哪里 \N 因为站点有表格，记录到各个目的地，信件该怎么传

because they keep a table of where to pass letters given a destination address.
每个站点都知道下一站发哪里 \N 因为站点有表格，记录到各个目的地，信件该怎么传

What’s neat about Message Switching is that it can use different routes,
报文交换的好处是 可以用不同路由 \N 使通信更可靠更能容错

making communication more reliable and fault-tolerant.
报文交换的好处是 可以用不同路由 \N 使通信更可靠更能容错

Sticking with our mail example,
回到邮件的例子

if there’s a blizzard in Minneapolis grinding things to a halt,
如果"明尼阿波利斯"有暴风雪中断了通信 \N "芝加哥"可以传给"奥马哈"

the Chicago mail hub can decide to route the letter through Omaha instead.
如果"明尼阿波利斯"有暴风雪中断了通信 \N "芝加哥"可以传给"奥马哈"

In our example, cities are acting like network routers.
在这个例子里，城市就像路由器一样

The number of hops a message takes along a route is called the hop count.
消息沿着路由跳转的次数 \N 叫"跳数"(hop count)

Keeping track of the hop count is useful because it can help identify routing problems.
记录跳数很有用，因为可以分辨出路由问题

For example, let’s say Chicago thinks the fastest route to Missoula is through Omaha,
举例，假设芝加哥认为 \N 去米苏拉的最快路线是 奥马哈

but Omaha thinks the fastest route is through Chicago.
但奥马哈认为 \N 去米苏拉的最快路线是 芝加哥

That's bad, because both cities are going to look at the destination address, Missoula,
这就糟糕了\N 因为2个城市看到目的地是米苏拉

and end up passing the message back and forth between them, endlessly.
结果报文会在2个城市之间\N不停传来传去

Not only is this wasting bandwidth, but it’s a routing error that needs to get fixed!
不仅浪费带宽 而且这个路由错误需要修复!

This kind of error can be detected because the hop count is
这种错误会被检测到，因为跳数记录在消息中 \N 而且传输时会更新跳数

stored with the message and updated along its journey.
这种错误会被检测到，因为跳数记录在消息中 \N 而且传输时会更新跳数

If you start seeing messages with high hop counts,
如果看到某条消息的跳数很高 \N 就知道路由肯定哪里错了

you can bet something has gone awry in the routing!
如果看到某条消息的跳数很高 \N 就知道路由肯定哪里错了

This threshold is the Hop Limit.
这叫"跳数限制"

A downside to Message Switching is that messages are sometimes big.
报文交换的缺点之一是有时候报文比较大

So, they can clog up the network, because the whole message has to be transmitted from
会堵塞网络 因为要把整个报文从一站传到下一站后 \N 才能继续传递其他报文

one stop to the next before continuing on its way.
会堵塞网络 因为要把整个报文从一站传到下一站后 \N 才能继续传递其他报文

While a big file is transferring, that whole link is tied up.
传输一个大文件时 整条路都阻塞了

Even if you have a tiny, one kilobyte email trying to get through,
即便你只有一个1KB的电子邮件要传输 \N 也只能等大文件传完，或是选另一条效率稍低的路线

it either has to wait for the big file transfer to finish or take a less efficient route.
即便你只有一个1KB的电子邮件要传输 \N 也只能等大文件传完，或是选另一条效率稍低的路线

That’s bad.
这就糟了

The solution is to chop up big transmissions into many small pieces, called packets.
解决方法是 将大报文分成很多小块，叫"数据包"

Just like with Message Switching, each packet contains a destination address on the network,
就像报文交换 每个数据包都有目标地址 \N 因此路由器知道发到哪里

so routers know where to forward them.
就像报文交换 每个数据包都有目标地址 \N 因此路由器知道发到哪里

This format is defined by the "Internet Protocol", or IP for short,
报文具体格式由"互联网协议"定义，简称 IP \N 这个标准创建于 1970 年代

a standard created in the 1970s.
报文具体格式由"互联网协议"定义，简称 IP \N 这个标准创建于 1970 年代

Every computer connected to a network gets an IP Address.
每台联网的计算机都需要一个IP地址

You’ve probably seen these as four, 8-bit numbers written with dots in between.
你可能见过，以点分隔的4组数字

For example,172.217.7.238 is an IP Address for one of Google’s servers.
例如 172.217.7.238 是 Google 其中一个服务器的IP地址

With millions of computers online, all exchanging data,
数百万台计算机在网络上不断交换数据 \N 瓶颈的出现和消失是毫秒级的

bottlenecks can appear and disappear in milliseconds.
数百万台计算机在网络上不断交换数据 \N 瓶颈的出现和消失是毫秒级的

Network routers are constantly trying to balance the load across whatever routes they know
路由器会平衡与其他路由器之间的负载 \N 以确保传输可以快速可靠，这叫"阻塞控制"

to ensure speedy and reliable delivery, which is called congestion control.
路由器会平衡与其他路由器之间的负载 \N 以确保传输可以快速可靠，这叫"阻塞控制"

Sometimes different packets from the same message take different routes through a network.
有时，同一个报文的多个数据包 \N 会经过不同线路

This opens the possibility of packets arriving at their destination out of order,
到达顺序可能会不一样，这对一些软件是个问题

which is a problem for some applications.
到达顺序可能会不一样，这对一些软件是个问题

Fortunately, there are protocols that run on top of IP,
幸运的是，在 IP 之上还有其他协议

like TCP/IP, that handle this issue.
比如 TCP/IP, 可以解决乱序问题

We’ll talk more about that next week.
我们下周会讲

Chopping up data into small packets,
将数据拆分成多个小数据包，然后通过灵活的路由传递

and passing these along flexible routes with spare capacity,
将数据拆分成多个小数据包，然后通过灵活的路由传递

is so efficient and fault-tolerant, it’s what the whole internet runs on today.
非常高效且可容错，如今互联网就是这么运行的

This routing approach is called Packet Switching.
这叫"分组交换"

It also has the nice property of being decentralized,
有个好处是 它是去中心化的

with no central authority or single point of failure.
没有中心权威机构 没有单点失败问题

In fact, the threat of nuclear attack is why
事实上 因为冷战期间有核攻击的威胁，所以创造了分组交换

packet switching was developed during the cold war!
事实上 因为冷战期间有核攻击的威胁，所以创造了分组交换

Today, routers all over the globe work cooperatively to find efficient routings,
如今，全球的路由器协同工作，找出最高效的线路

exchanging information with each other using special protocols,
用各种标准协议运输数据

like the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
比如 "因特网控制消息协议"(ICMP)

and the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).
和 "边界网关协议"(BGP)

The world's first packet-switched network,
世界上第一个分组交换网络

and the ancestor to the modern internet, was the ARPANET,
以及现代互联网的祖先是 ARPANET

named after the US agency that funded it,
名字来源于赞助这个项目的机构，美国高级研究计划局

the Advanced Research Projects Agency.
名字来源于赞助这个项目的机构，美国高级研究计划局

Here’s what the entire ARPANET looked like in 1974.
这是 1974 年整个 ARPANET 的样子

Each smaller circle is a location,
每个小圆表示一个地点 \N 比如大学或实验室，那里运行着一个路由器

like a university or research lab, that operated a router.
每个小圆表示一个地点 \N 比如大学或实验室，那里运行着一个路由器

They also plugged in one or more computers
并且有一台或多台计算机

– you can see PDP-1’s, IBM System 360s,
能看到 "PDP-1" 和"IBM 360系统"

and even an ATLAS in London connected over a satellite link.
甚至还有一个伦敦的 ATLAS \N 是通过卫星连到网络里的

Obviously the internet has grown by leaps and bounds in the decades since.
显然 互联网在这几十年间发展迅速

Today, instead of a few dozen computers online, it’s estimated to be nearing 10 billion.
如今不再只有几十台计算机联网 \N 据估计 有接近100亿台联网设备

And it continues to grow rapidly,
而且互联网会继续快速发展

especially with the advent of wifi-connected refrigerators, thermostat
特别是如今各种智能设备层出不穷 \N 比如联网冰箱，恒温器

and other smart appliances, forming an "internet of things".
以及其他智能家电，它们组成了"物联网"

So that’s part one – an overview of computer networks.
第一部分到此结束 \N 我们对计算机网络进行了概览

Is it a series of tubes?
网络是一堆管子组成的吗？

Well, sort of.
额 算是吧

Next week we’ll tackle some higher-level transmission protocols,
下周我们会讨论一些高级传输协议

slowly working our way up to the World Wide Web.
然后讲万维网

I’ll see you then!
到时见啦